CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION


Statement of the Problem

The Kingdom of Thailand has undergone dramatic changes in
its resource and environmental protection efforts since 1992. The
National Environmental Conservation and Protection Act was
promulgated in 1992, providing the framework for setting the long
term Environmental Policy for the Kingdom. A 5 year Environmental
Quality Action Plan has been prepared to make the environmental
policies tangible. This 5 year plan is being implemented together with
the newly initiated 9th National Economic and Social Development
Plan.
Over the past five years, Thailand has continued her
environmental protection efforts. However, there are several
constraints inherent in the implementation of the government’s
policies to protect the environment. The main limitations faced by
Thailand were the lack of human resources in science and technology,
the shortage of new technologies and infrastructure, and the lack of
resources to acquire new technologies.
The combination of Thailand’s efforts and foreign assistance to
Thailand have been used to cope with these problems. Overall,
Thailand gives priority to foreign assistance in:
1) Advanced scientific and technological development in
sustainable resource use and environmental protection,
such as pollution control, clean technology, biodiversity
conservation, biotechnology development.
2) Human resource development in sciences and technologies
and in public health.
3) Development of energy efficient technology to enhance
primary energy conservation.
4) Development of green accounting and environmental and
resource auditing systems.


The above expectation for international assistance would
surely enhance Thailand’s economic, human resource, and
natural resource and environmental capacity building.
Thailand has received Japanese ODA firstly in 1968 when
Thailand and Japan signed the Yen Loan Agreement for Economic
Development in Thailand. Since then, the amount of assistance to
Thailand has been increasing. The main purpose of Japanese ODA to
Thailand is economic development, particularly infrastructure
construction, both in Bangkok and her periphery.
However, after the Cold War, Japan has change her ODA
policy. According to the ODA Charter 1992, the new guideline of
ODA policy, there are new issues which Japanese government
concerns as a priority or condition for providing ODA to recipient
countries. Those new issues include the promotion of democracy and
the free market economy, and the global issues, such as, the
environment. Recently due to the ODA Charter 1992, Japanese
Government has given priority to the projects which emphasize on
environmental problems in Thailand; such as the construction of
wastewater treatment plant in Bangkok.
Data from JICA shows that during the last five years of the
1990’s, many projects related to environmental problems have got a
large amount of assistance from Japan. Therefore, it is interesting to
study why and how Japanese ODA be provided to Thailand,
particularly for the projects related to environmental issues. And it is
also important to examine whether those Japanese ODA can help to
improve the environmental situation in Thailand.

Objectives of the Study

Many projects related to environmental problems in Thailand
have got a large amount of Japanese ODA. This study aims to find out
why and how Japanese ODA be provided to Thailand, particularly for
the projects related to environmental issues. It also examine whether
those Japanese ODA can help to improve the environmental situation
in Thailand. The result of the study will enhance better understanding
of the role of Japanese ODA for other countries and provide policy
recommendations for both Thailand and Japan in the area of
environmental protection.

Methodology

The methodology applied in this research is documentary
research, in depth interview and case studies. The primary document
consists of the ODA Charter 1992, speeches of leaders of two
countries, policy declaration of both governments, agreements
between two governments, static data from organizations related to the
issue in both countries. The secondary document are articles and
books which related to the topic. The interview is conducted in
Thailand. The interviewees are policy makers and practitioners of Thai
government’s officials and Japanese’s representatives in Thailand.
This study selected two main environmental problems in Bangkok for
the analysis of the role of Japanese ODA. The first case is the
wastewater management. The second case is the solid waste
management.

Scope of the Study

In this study, environmental projects means projects which
address directly to environmental protection, for example,
reforestation, water supply, wastewater management, solid waste
management. Projects which indirectly address to environmental
protection such as agricultural development, transportation, fisheries,
irrigation are not classified as environmental projects.

　　　
　

CHAPTER II

Japanese ODA and Environmental Issues : Development and
Arguments

Introduction

Japan has started providing ODA since1950’s after getting an
independence. At the beginning, ODA was given mainly to countries
in Asia in the form of war reparation.(1) Later, since 1960’s, the
amount of ODA as well as the objective of ODA were expanded.
And during 1990’s Japan is the biggest donor, starting from 1991. (2)
Although Japan has provided a lot of ODA to many developing
countries, she has been criticized in many points. Among them, the
commercial oriented of her aid policy had been debated since 1960’s.
Until the late 1980’s when untied aid policy was announced, this
criticism became out of date. (3) Another issue which has been pointed
out for discussion is the low priority to global issues; such as,
environment, population and AIDS, etc. (4)
This chapter will try to investigate and explain the development
of Japanese ODA and arguments about it, particularly the ODA
provided for environmental issues in developing countries.
The case study of Thailand will be used to display a precise picture.

Japanese ODA and its character

The first character of Japanese ODA policy is the flexibility
and response to changing domestic and international conditions. Since
1950’s, when Japan started to provide ODA to developing countries
until now, the objective of this policy has been changed many times
due mainly to her national interests and external pressure / criticism.
During 1950’s and 1960’s, Japan provided ODA to the
countries in Southeast Asia which were the victims of Japanese
military during the Second World War, in the form of war reparation.
And by this policy, Japanese goods and services could flew into
Southeast Asian countries’ markets. Later, during 1960’s to 1970’s,
the objective of Japanese ODA was expanded to the economic purpose.
This included the market expansion, investment destination, and
natural resources exploration. However, during early of 1970’s,
Japanese ODA was strongly criticized in many recipient countries due
to its commercial oriented purpose. Therefore, the Japanese
government had reviewed her ODA policy. Fukuda Doctrine which
was announced in 1977, shaped the new direction of Japanese ODA to
developing countries, particularly in Southeast Asia. Japanese ODA
since then has been emphasized on cultural exchange in order to
promote the better understanding about Japan and improve Japanese
image among Southeast Asian people.
During 1980’s, Japan became an economic power. Although
she still provided more ODA to developing countries, her objective of
ODA policy was changed. The Japanese government tried to use ODA
as a foreign policy instrument to persuade the recipient countries to do
or not to do some policies. (5) And in 1990’s, when Japan became the
biggest donor, she also added more objective to her ODA policy. This
included the creation of the prestige status of the country in the
international community by responding to various global issues. By
the end of the 20th century, Japanese government again issued the new
Japan’s Medium Term Policy on ODA in 1999 as a response to the
changing domestic conditions of budget constraint and economic
stagnation, and to the international conditions of environmental
awareness and sustainable development. (6)
This flexible character of Japanese ODA policy, on one hand is
said to be a good point. But on the other hand, it also leads to the
debate that Japan does not have a core idea on ODA. She always
responds to the situations, particularly the criticism or external
pressure.
The second character of Japanese ODA is the proportion
between grant and loan. Actually, Japan provides 3 types of ODA :
grant, loan, and technical cooperation. According to her philosophy of
self - help, Japan always provides ODA in the form of loan more than
other forms. This pattern is based on an assumption that the recipient
country will have a discipline on project management and money
spending since it requires the government of that country to repay
what have been borrowed. (7) However, it is argued that this self ? help
philosophy seems to be a narrow idea which concerns only about the
money. Although in the Japan’s Medium Term Policy on ODA has
included the concept of good governance which emphasizes on proper
implementation and transparency in aid projects, (8) it is still based on
the old idea of money and project management. It is questioned
whether the concept of self - help could be extended to the idea
beyond this.
The third character of Japanese ODA is the principle of request
based. Precisely speaking, the Japanese government has provided
ODA based on the request from the recipient country to support her
development, as well as the idea of non interference in domestic
affairs of the receipt country. (9) This principle, on one hand is
considered to be a strong point of Japanese ODA policy since the
donor will not try to force or influence the receipt country to accept a
value or policy of the donor. But on the other hand, it is also criticized
as an irresponsible ODA policy since it neglects the recipient
country’s capability to manage ODA and may lead to the inefficient
use of ODA. In addition, it also adds a risky of falling into the supply
side mentality of the recipient country which normally tends to
borrow a big amount of money and spend it as much as possible. (10)

Japan’s experience of environmental issue

An environmental issue is not a new thing in Japanese society.
Japan has faced this problem since 1960’s. The main causes of
environmental problems in Japan were the highly and rapidly
industrialization and urbanization. Pollution of various kinds including
air, water, and noise, were found in big cities and industrial areas of
Pacific coast. By the end of 1960’s, the Japanese government had
realized the seriousness of pollution problem and tried to overcome
that situation.
At the beginning, at the local level, the system of impact
assessment was introduced. The system of impact assessment seeks to
ascertain beforehand how large scale industrial development project
will affect the environment. Then, the measure to counter or prevent
pollution which is expected to occur, will be prepared or implemented.
By this way, pollution will be decreased or prevented before it occurs.
Until now, this measure, despite the lack of a law, has been continued
by many local governments in Japan. (11)
In addition, by the end of 1960’s, the government also
promulgated the Basic Law for Environmental Pollution Control in
1967. This law divided the responsibility for anti pollution measures
among the central and local governments and the business community.
It required the central government to establish the environmental
quality standards for air, water, noise, and soil pollution. It also asked
for arrangements to measure and monitor pollution and carry out
inspections. In severely contaminated areas, it asked the prefectural
governments to draw up pollution control plans. Moreover, the law
stipulated that business must pay part of the costs of clean up
measures undertaken by central and local governments. (12)
In 1970’s, the Japanese government had paid more attention to
the environmental issue. The Environmental Agency was set up in
1971, and the conservation of natural environment was added as
another responsibility of the organization, apart from the pollution
control. During this decade, many rules and regulations were issued in
order to control pollution as well as to conserve natural environment.
Furthermore, new technology was also invented, particularly in the
automobile and energy sectors, in order to decrease the pollution
problems. By the end of 1970’s, the situation became better. The
report of OECD Environmental Committee reported in 1977 that the
anti pollution measures implemented by Japanese government was
working. After that, Japan had set up the next step of environmental
policy which emphasized on reuse or recycle process. (13)
In retrospect, it can be said that Japan has been successful in
overcoming the environmental problems, particularly the development
of anti pollution technology. Some scholars also comment that in
reality, the development of anti pollution makes the best progress
when several conditions emerge together. One is a public demand for
environmental protection. Another is a government’ s action in
response to this demand in the form of rules and regulations. And the
last one is a corporate endeavor to meet increasing stringent controls.
When these conditions gelled in Japan, the fight against pollution went
rapidly. (14)
Although it is agreed that Japan is successful in overcoming
the environmental problems, some scholars have pointed out some
notable characters of policies and methods applied by the Japanese
government to counter pollution problems in the country. Firstly, the
solution of the pollution problems usually is the reactive disposition,
which means that the Japanese government tends to take a remedial
measures rather than preventive measures. Secondly, the method
applied to solve the pollution problems usually is technological
emphasis. Since the major aim of the environmental policy is to
reduce the levels of health ? damaging pollutants through
technological development, industries are asked to develop the
pollution control technology. Thirdly, as a result of the above policy
and method, the low priority given to the natural conservation which is
another side of environmental issue can be seen. (15)
During the time when Japan had faced her domestic
environmental problems, the international environmental issue also
became a concern among developed countries. The United Nations
Conference on the Human Environment, which convened in
Stockholm in 1972, is considered as a starting point of an international
environmentalism. It was an important conference in the sense that the
environmental problem drew attention in the international political
arena. And the conference led to the creation of the United Nations
Environment Program in the same year. Nevertheless, the declaration
and the action plan adopted at the Stockholm Conference were not
effectively put into practice after the conference. It was not until the
late1980’s that global and regional environmental problems climbed
up to the top of the international political agenda. (16)
For Japan, however, it is said that Japan did not pay much
attention to this issue at the beginning. According to some researches,
although Japan sent her representatives to join the international
activities or organizations relating to the environmental issues, she did
not play a significant role in those activities or organizations. Some
scholars also commented that when it came to substantive policies that
might work against her national interests, Japan was slower to commit
herself. In most cases, the nation took longer than other developed
countries to ratify international conventions. (17)
In early of 1990’s, the environmental issue has become a big
concern in the international community again. The UNCED
Conference which was known as the Rio Conference in 1992 had
resulted in many documents relating to the environmental issue.
Although some commented that the result of the conference was
nothing new, others argued that this was only the beginning of the
process of enhancing international understanding and cooperation in
order to achieve a balance between development and environment. (18)
By that time, Japan was considered as the successful example
of managing and overcoming environmental problems. Moreover,
Japan has also been the biggest donor since early of 1990’s. Therefore,
since then, Japan has been asked to pay more attention and participate
much more in the international environmental issues.

Japanese ODA and environmental issues

Japan has tied the international environmental issues with her
ODA policy. Japan has considered ODA to be a key policy tool for
addressing global environmental issues because of the close link
between these issues and the development problems in developing
countries. Japan not only has stressed on ODA as its contribution to
the global environment, but also has encouraged the private sector to
promote the technology transfer to developing countries through its
FDI.
In 1992 ODA Charter, the environmental issue was stated as
a priority issue and condition for providing ODA to developing
countries. (19) Since 1992, Japan has provided more ODA for
environmental projects of both international organizations relating to
this issue and developing countries whose development projects
promote this issue. An increasing numbers of environmental projects
which got Japanese ODA in Thailand during 1992-2001 displays this
situation quite well. (See more details in Table 1 )
However, it is noted that Japanese ODA provided to those
organizations and countries has two characters. First, it has
emphasized much on problem solution, which at the same time has
neglected the natural conservation. Second, it has emphasized much
on technology to solve the problems, particularly pollution from
community and industries. In the case of Thailand, it is found out that
during 1991 ? 2001, among 34 projects which got ODA from Japan,
there were only 6 projects on natural conservation, 5 projects on
problem solving in industrial sector, 3 projects on problem solving in
energy sector, and 15 projects on problem solving in urban area. (see
more details in the table)
　　　According to some researches, it is explained that this situation
has occurred because Japan has developed her international
environmental policy from her own domestic experiences. (20) Since
Japan was successful in overcoming pollution problems in her country
both from industries and community by technology, she tries to apply
the same method to other countries with an assumption that the same
technology can be applied to the same problem. (21) However, it is
questioned whether the policy which neglects the natural conservation
and technology which is transferred to developing countries for
pollution control are proper. The main point is that the international
environmental issues are more complex than domestic environmental
issues. And environmental problems in different countries are
different, not only the type of problems, but also other social
conditions. Therefore, it may require different type of solution,
including technology and community participation. Two case studies
of wastewater management and solid waste management in Bangkok,
Thailand, which have been studied in details and will be explained in
the next chapter, reflect this argument.
Moreover, according to some researchers, it was believed that
during 1990’s, the Japanese government made the ODA policy
relating to environmental issue by following the JICA Report of 1988.
This report which provided guidelines for environmental ODA policy
making, indicated that it seemed to be easier to transfer technology for
problem solving than to transfer technology for natural conservation
because technology for natural conservation needed to cooperate with
the community (social factor). However, the research result conducted
later in Thailand, showed that it was too soon to conclude in that way.
Although social factor was important for transfer of technology for
natural conservation but it did not mean that it was an obstacle for that
activity. At the same time, to transfer technology for problem solving
without concerning of social factors might not be successful. (22)
Apart from the issue of technology transfer to those
environmental projects in developing countries, the self ? help effort
which has been promoted through ODA policy including the
environmental issue is also discussed. In fact, from the Japanese
experiences, at least 3 factors are important for the successfulness of
overcoming the environmental problems, both the pollution control
and the natural conservation. And among them, the public demand for
good environment or awareness of local people on environmental
issues is the most important one. Therefore, it is questioned whether
the self ? help philosophy should be extended from the basic idea of
project and money management to the creation of environmental
concern in the recipient countries. In the case of Thailand, from
available data, among 34 environmental projects which received
Japanese ODA during 1992-2001, there are less than 10 projects
which promoted about the environmental awareness in Thai society.
Moreover, although some of these projects still continue their training
activities, there is no available data to display the outcome of those
training program. However, this point may be debatable from
Japanese side that this activity should be the responsibility of Thai
government.
Another point of Japanese ODA on environmental projects
which has been discussed for some times is the request based principle.
The main argument about this principle is that it may lead to the
inefficient use of ODA due to a limited capability of the recipient
country or a no transparent process of management. Although the
application of 1992 ODA Charter has changed the process of ODA
providing from the request based to the consultative based, the
situation is not getting much better. The criticism of “irresponsible
aid” still exists; for example, in Thai society. In the case of Thailand,
from available data, almost all environmental projects which got ODA
from Japan during 1992-2001 had requested for a big amount of
money. And among them, data from the International Cooperation
Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, showed that only one-third
of those projects were evaluated by relating organizations both Thai
and Japanese. However, again, this management problem may be
debatable from Japanese side that it should be the responsibility of
Thai officials.
The last point which has been strongly debated recently is the
community participation in the process of project formulation. In fact,
from Japanese experience, the system of impact assessment which
searches for ascertain beforehand the impact of industrial development
project on environment, has been practiced for long time by local
authority and community. And some projects; for example, a
petrochemical complex in Nishinomiya, Hyogo Prefecture and
Shizuoka industrial complex, were cancelled after the impact
assessment system were carried out because the results showed that
they would effect the environment, and local community did refuse
them strongly. (23) Therefore, these experiences and method should be
transferred to the developing countries which request for Japanese
ODA, or it should be required to practice this system during the
process of project formulation in order to request for Japanese ODA
so that the environmental problems can be diminished, and Japanese
ODA will not be used for wrong purpose. In the case of Thailand,
from available data, it seems that almost all projects which asked for
Japanese ODA were prepared by officials, and few information were
informed to local community.

The new policy for the new century

The Japanese government, in the late of 1990’s, has learned
from the 10 year-experiences and from criticism that the policy and
method which have been applied, may not be suitable for many
recipient countries. Therefore, the Japanese government by Ministry
of Foreign Affairs had reviewed her policy and announced in 1999 the
“Medium Term Policy on ODA” to be a new guideline for ODA
providing process. According to this Medium Term Policy on ODA,
the self ? help effort is still emphasized with an addition of the good
governance whose objective is to ensure proper implementation and
transparency in aid projects. (24)
Concerning to the environmental issue, it is indicated that
“Through its own experiences, Japan has learned much about
developing technologies for pollution control to achieve economic
growth while preserving the environment. Both Japan’s experiences
and technologies can play a significant role in promoting social and
economic development and in achieving sustainable development in
developing countries” . (25) An in order to reach this goal, “Japan will
provide the following forms of support : In accordance with the basic
principles and action program of the “Initiatives for Sustainable
Development toward the 21st Century” (ISD), announced by Japan in
the United Nations General Assembly Special Session on the
Environment and Development held in June 1997, Japan will continue
to actively support programs and countermeasures in the following
areas : (a) air and water pollution and waste disposal, (b) global
warming, (c) conservation of the natural environment and sustainable
management of forest resources, (e) “fresh water” issues, and (f)
environmental awareness building and strategic studies” . (26) For the
energy which is partly a cause of environmental problem, it is
indicated that “Japan will provide the following forms of support :
To reduce the emission of greenhouse gases by developing countries
while achieving sustainable development, Japan will support the
following measures : energy saving, the utilization of solar and wind
power and other renewable energy sources, the introduction of coal-
related technologies with reduced environmental burden, and the
preservation and development of forests as a source of firewood; in
the are of mineral resources, Japan has provided technical and
financial support for mining projects in major supplying countries
while paying due attention to environmental concerns. With the
growth of regional and international interest in environmental
problems, Japan will continue to provide assistance and support,
including support for environmental impact studies of mining
projects” . (27)
In addition, in order to improve the implementation and
management of ODA, the understanding of the conditions in
individual developing countries and the formulation of country
assistance program are stated in the Medium Term Policy. In detail, it
is indicated that “to enhance the impact of ODA, Japan will endeavor
to develop a better understanding of the specific conditions in
individual developing countries and to provide forms of assistance
that match the needs and conditions of developing countries. For this
purpose, Japan will actively undertake various types of studies and
promote policy dialogue with developing countries” . (28) Furthermore,
in order to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of ODA, the
following process including the preliminary studies, environmental
considerations, monitoring of implementation, and ex-post evaluation,
will be carried out. (29)
After the Medium Term Policy on ODA was announced in
1999, Japan Bank for International Cooperation also announced the
Medium Term Strategy for Overseas Economic Cooperation
Operations : The basic strategy for ODA loan operation for the first
time in 1999. This had expired by March 2002. And since April 2002,
JBIC has announced the new Medium Term Strategy for Overseas
Economic Cooperation Operations for the period of 3 years from 2002
to 2005. It sets out the priority issues of ODA loan operations in a
manner consistent with the ODA Charter and the Medium Term
Policy of Japanese government on ODA in order to ensure effective
and efficient implementation of ODA loan operations. (30) According
to this new strategy, the environmental improvement and anti
pollution measures are issues which have gotten priority. It is
indicated that “ with abundant experience in pollution control and
improving the urban environment, Japan can make effective
contribution in this area. JBIC will make a positive effort to draw on
Japanese experience and promote technical transfers in ODA loan
operations that aim at improving the urban environment. Specific
priorities include pollution control facilities, including air pollution
control systems, wastewater treatment systems, and waste disposal
systems, and environmental-friendly production technology that
facilitates recycling and has the least impact on the environment “ . (31)
In addition, in particular of the environmental issue, in April
2002, JBIC issued the JBIC Guidelines for Confirmation of
Environmental and Social Considerations as a new guideline for ODA
loan. This new guidelines stipulates that JBIC should confirm
considerations made to address not only environmental issues but also
social issues including resettlement, indigenous people and women.
Prior to loan provision, JBIC screens and classifies proposed projects,
and then conducts environmental review. After loan provision,
projects will be monitored to assure that appropriate environmental
measures have actually been implemented. A major feature of this
new guidelines is the broader disclosure of screening information and
results of the environmental review. The new guidelines also require
project executors to invite participation of stakeholders; such as, local
community residents, from the project planning stage, while
mandating local disclosure of the environmental impact assessment
report. Moreover, JBIC is striving to ensure transparency,
predictability, and accountability in its environmental consideration.
At the same time, it will raise awareness of project executors on the
significance of environmental considerations. (32)
Although this new policy, strategy, and guidelines show a
good sign of adaptation by Japanese government on ODA policy and
environmental issues, it reflects the fact that Japan does not have a
core policy on both issues, but again, responds to the criticism or
pressure. In fact, by this time of new era, and due to her economic
capability, Japan should redefine and set up her ODA policy and goal
as some scholars have suggested that “what is important here is not
the selection and evaluation of specific ODA projects in the light of
narrowly defined assistance objectives but rather the repositioning of
the ODA program as an element playing a key role within the broad
design of Japan’s foreign policy” . (33) And it should be done in the
same way for the environmental issue, both at the global level and in
the developing countries.
However, it may be too soon to conclude anything now,
before the new strategy and guidelines be implemented. Certainly, it
needs time to prove that all new measures are suitable solutions.

Conclusion and recommendations

In my opinion, the following points should be reconsidered.
Firstly, the self-help philosophy should be extended beyond the
traditional idea and practice of project and money management. It
should help to empower the recipient country to stand on their feet in
the long term. For the environmental issue, it means that the public
awareness or public demand on environmental issues should be
created in order to decrease the pollution and conserve the nature. In
concrete terms, to equip public of the recipient country with
knowledge about environment is the most important thing which
Japanese ODA should give priority. However, it is also important to
differentiate the public demand from the governmental demand since
in some recipient countries the governmental demand may not reflect
public demand.
Secondly, Japan should have a core policy on both ODA and
environmental issue. As a major power, Japan should initiate a policy
which displays her stand or vision on these issues. Concerning to the
environment, although the Medium Term Policy on ODA has been
declared as a guideline for aid providing process since 1999, this
guideline still reflects the reaction to the criticism or external pressure,
rather than Japan’s viewpoint. And in practical terms, the new
Medium Term Strategy for Overseas Economic Cooperation
Operations and the JBIC Guidelines for Confirmation of
Environmental and Social Considerations announced by JBIC seem to
repeat the same path of Japanese experience, rather than to design a
new model for the recipient country.
　　　And finally, although the request based or consultative based
principle is still an important method to conduct the ODA project in
the recipient country, this method should be reconsidered. The
important point is that conditions in recipient countries should be
concerned including capability, limitations, cost, and efficiency, so
that Japanese ODA will be utilized effectively and contributed to
people of the recipient country as a whole.


Table 1
Environmental Projects Got Japanese ODA from 1991-2001

Project No.
Project Title
Duration (start date)
Requesting Agency
Project Site
Project Cost (B.)
Type of ODA
Project Status

Unknown
The Fourth Bangkok Water Supply Improvement Project (Phase I)
(18/09/91)
Metropolitan Waterworks Authority
Bangkok Metropolitan
8,368 (Millions; JPY)
Loan (JBIC)
Unknown

34-0245
Improvement of Water Quality Analysis Technique for Wastewater Treatment Work’s Reinforcement (TC)
36 months (01/11/91)
Ministry of Interior
Bangkok Metropolitan
N/A
Grant + technical cooperation (JICA)
Completed

33-0194
The Study on Master Planning for Sewerage Development Project for Lower Chao Praya River Basin (DS)
21 months (30/04/92)
Ministry of Interior
Bangkok Metropolitan; Chai Nat; Nonthaburi; Pathum Thani; Ayutthaya; Sing Buri; Ang Thong
N/A
-
Completed

33-0205
The Study on Management of Groundwater and Land Subsidence in the Bangkok Metropolitan Area and Its
Vicinity (DS)
29 months ( /06/92)
Ministry of Industry
Ranong
N/A
-
Completed

35-0110
The Industrial Waste Water Treatment Technology for Electroplating Project (TC)
27 months (16/12/92)
Ministry of Industry
Bangkok Metropolitan
N/A
Grant + technical cooperation (JICA)
Completed

Unknown
Fourth Bangkok Water Supply Project (II) and Fifth Project
(29/01/93)
Metropolitan Waterworks Authority
Bangkok Metropolitan
16,969(Millions; JPY)
Loan (JBIC)
Unknown

Unknown
Environmental Protection Promotion Program
(29/01/93)
Industrial Finance Cooperation of Thailand
Unknown
3,000(Millions; JPY)
Loan (JBIC)
Unknown

Unknown
Three Provincial Cities Water Supply Expansion Project
(29/01/93)
Provincial Waterworks Authority
Unknown
4,754(Millions; JPY)
Loan (JBIC)
Unknown

34-0028
The Agricultural Land Rehabilitation and Conservation Project in Surat
Thani and Nakhon Sri Thammarat Provinces (DS)
22 months (9/04/93)
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives
Surat Thani; Nakhon Sri Thammarat
N/A
-
Completed

35-0060
The Land and Water Conservation Center Project in the East of Thailand (TC)
54 months (10/06/93)
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives
Chantha Buri; Chacheongsao; Chon Buri; Rayong; Prachin Buri
N/A
Grant + technical cooperation (JICA)
Completed

Unknown
Network System Improvement Project
(22/09/93)
Metropolitan Waterworks Authority
Bangkok Metropolitan
5,599(Millions; JPY)
Loan (JBIC)
Unknown


Unknown
Fuel Gas Desulfurization Plant for Mae Moh Power Plant (Unit 8-11)
(22/09/93)
Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand
Lampang
15,924(Millions; JPY)
Loan (JBIC)
Unknown

Unknown
The Environmental Fund Project
(22/09/93)
Office of Environmental Policy and Planning
Unknown
11,200(Millions; JPY)
Loan (JBIC)
Unknown

Unknown
Promotion of Electricity Energy Efficiency Project
(22/09/93)
Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand
Unknown
2,800(Millions; JPY)
Loan (JBIC)
Unknown

Unknown
Three Southern Provincial Cities Water Supply Expansion Project
(22/09/93)
Provincial Waterworks Authority
Unknown
4,228(Millions; JPY)
Loan (JBIC)
Unknown

Unknown
Sixth Bangkok Water Supply Improvement Project
(30/09/94)
Metropolitan Waterworks Authority
Bangkok Metropolitan
11,383(Millions; JPY)
Loan (JBIC)
Unknown

37-0032
National Waterworks Technology Training Institute Project Phase I
60 months (1/12/94)
Ministry of Interior
Bangkok Metropolitan; Khon Kaen; Chiang Mai
N/A
-
Completed

37-0070
National Waterworks Technology Training Institute Project Phase II
60 months (1/09/94)
Ministry of Interior
Bangkok Metropolitan
N/A
-
Completed

37-0041
Study on Urban Environmental Improvement Program in Bangkok Metropolitan Area (DS)
18 months ( /04/95)
The Bangkok Metropolitan Administration
Bangkok Metropolitan
N/A
Grant + technical cooperation (JICA)
Completed

38-0005
Study on Urban Environmental Improvement Program in Bangkok Metropolitan Area (DS)
36 months ( / /95)
Ministry of Interior
Bangkok Metropolitan
N/A
-
Completed

38-0026
The Training Center for Sewerage Works Project
60 months (1/08/95)
Ministry of Interior
Bangkok Metropolitan
N/A
-
Completed

38-0049
TEI Environmental Training Center (SSGA)
12 months ( /01/96)
Thailand Environmental Institute (TEI)
Bangkok Metropolitan
2,908,150
Grant + technical cooperation (JICA)
Completed

39-0001
The Automotive Fuel Research Project for Environmental Improvement for Thailand (TC)
48 months (01/03/96)
Ministry of Industry
Ayutthaya
N/A
Grant + technical cooperation (JICA)
Completed

40-0046
After-care Program for Research and Training in the Re-afforestation Project
24 months (14/11/97)
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives
N/A
N/A
-
Completed

41-0007
The Project on the Industrial Water Technology Institute
24 months (01/06/98)
Ministry of Industry
Bangkok Metropolitan
N/A
-
Completed

42-0075
The Modernization of Water Management System Project
60 months (1/04/99)
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives
Lop Buri
N/A
Grant + technical cooperation (JICA)
On going

Unknown
Seventh Bangkok Water Supply Improvement Project (I)
(29/09/99)
Metropolitan Waterworks Authority
Bangkok Metropolitan
12,608(Millions; JPY)
Loan (JBIC)
Unknown

Unknown
Community Hospital Wastewater Treatment Project
(29/09/99)
Ministry of Public Health
Unknown
4,771(Millions; JPY)
Loan (JBIC)
Unknown

34-0244
The Reforestation and Extension Project in the Northeast of Thailand (TC) Phase II
144months (21/12/99)
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives
Nakhon Ratchasima; Yasothon; Maha Sarakham; Udon Thani
N/A
Grant + technical cooperation (JICA)
On going

43-0003
Restoration of Mangrove at Songkhla Lake
15 months (01/01/00)
Thailand Union for Mangrove Rehabilitation and Conservation
Songkhla
4,494,100
Grant + technical cooperation (JICA)
Completed

43-0002
The Project on the Industrial Water Technology Institute
60 months (01/06/00)
Ministry of Industry
Bangkok Metropolitan
N/A
-
On going

Unknown
Seventh Bangkok Water Supply Improvement Project (II)
(22/09/00)
Metropolitan Waterworks Authority
Bangkok Metropolitan
9,601(Millions; JPY)
Loan (JBIC)
Unknown

43-0020
The Master Plan on Industrial Waste Management in the Bangkok Metropolitan Area
and its Vicinity
39 months (01/12/00)
Ministry of Industry
Bangkok Metropolitan; Pathum Thani; Samut Prakarn; Samut Sakhon
N/A
Grant + technical cooperation (JICA)
On going

44-0016
The Acid Deposition Control Strategy
15 months (15/12/01)
Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment
Bangkok Metropolitan
N/A
-
On going




Footnotes

1. Hiroshi Yamamoto, “Japanese Official Development
Assistance”, Political Science Journal, Thammasat
University, 1992 , pp. 55
2. Kuninori Kuroishi , Japan’s ODA . Program on U.S. -
Japan Relations, Harvard University, 2000, p. 1
3. Shunji Matsuoka . Japan’s ODA and Environmental
Cooperation in the Asia Pacific Region . APEC Study
Center, Hiroshima University, 1995, pp. 30
4. Yo Kimura . The Environmental Impact of Foreign Aid :
Issues and Action . Program on U.S. - Japan Relations,
Harvard University, 1990, pp. 27
5. Hiroshi Yamamoto, op. cit. pp. 55-85
6. Ministry of Foreign Affairs . Japan’s Medium Term Policy
on ODA, 1999, p 1-3.
7. Ryotaro Suzuki, “Analyzing ODA” , Look Japan, June
1996, p. 3
8. Ministry of Foreign Affairs . Japan’s Medium Term Policy
on ODA . 1999, p. 4
9. Shunji Matsuoka, op. cit. p. 8
10. Yo Kimura . op. cit. pp. 27
11. Michio Hashimoto . Economic Development and
Environment : The Japanese Experience . Tokyo :
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2000, pp. 8-9
12. Ibid. pp. 12
13. Ibid. pp. 14-18
14. Ibid. p. 18
15. Isao Miyaoka . Policy Legacies : Japan’s Responses to
Domestic and International Environmental Problems .
Program on U.S. - Japan Relations, Harvard University,
2000, pp. 11-20
16. Ibid. pp. 4-7
17. Ibid. pp. 22
18. Ibid. pp. 7-10
19. Ministry of Foreign Affairs . The ODA Charter 1992 . p. 1
20. Isao Miyaoka . op. cit. pp. 27
21. Ministry of Foreign Affairs . Japan’s Medium Term Policy
on ODA . 1999, pp. 17 ; Japan Bank for International
Cooperation . Basic Strategy of Japan’s ODA Loan . 2002,
pp. 12
22. Shunji Matsuoka . op. cit. pp. 17-30
23. Michio Hashimoto . op. cit. pp. 8-10
24. Ministry of Foreign Affairs . Japan’s Medium Term
Policy on ODA . 1999, p. 4
25. Ibid. pp. 17
26. Ibid. pp. 18
27. Ibid. pp. 21-22
28. Ibid. pp. 45
29. Ibid. pp. 46-48
30. Japan Bank for International Cooperation . Medium Term
Strategy for Overseas Economic Cooperation Operations :
Basic Strategy for Japan’s ODA Loan . 2002, p. 1
31. Ibid. pp.12
32. Japan Bank for International Cooperation . Annual Report
2002 . pp. 59
33. Ohno Kenichi, “Reconfiguring Japan’s ODA” , Look Japan,
February 2002, pp. 50
　

CHAPTER III

IMPLICATIONS OF JAPANESE ENVIRONMENTAL AID FOR
THAILAND: CASE STUDIES OF WASTEWATER AND SOLID
WASTE MANAGEMENT IN BANGKOK

Thailand’s impressive economic growth over the last three
decades fueled rapid industrialization and urbanization intensified
agricultural production and expanded the finishing industry. This
growth relied extensively on the country’s abundant and diverse
natural resources. Consequently this has caused pollution of air and
water in urban areas, degradation of land and water quality and
loss of natural habitats. (1) Bangkok stands out among the urban
center in Thailand with the most pressing “brown” environmental
problems. Domestic sewage, industrial wastewater and solid and
hazardous wastes have shown dramatic rise during this period of
rapid economic expansion, and about a third of the surface water
bodies are classified to be of poor quality.
Earlier chapter of this paper have documented Japanese
ODA for environmental projects in Thailand after 1992. It is
obvious that most of the projects got ODA from Japan are in
Bangkok. This chapter attempts to discuss on the effectiveness of
Japanese ODA for environmental purpose in Bangkok. It begins
with the overall picture of Japanese ODA related to Thai
environmental issues. Then the two case studies in Bangkok were
highlighted to argue the role of the ODA. Community wastewater
and solid waste problems are employed as case studies. The
management of these two problems are not only the critical issues
for the BMA but also the interested issues criticized by many local
and international NGOs.

Overall of Japanese ODA Flow to Thailand

Generally, when receiving the demand from Japanese
Government through her aid agencies (JICA/JBIC), the
Department of Technical and Economic Cooperation (DTEC) will
inform the related agencies about the fund that Japanese
Government will give away. The Thai government agencies which
interest to ask for aid have to propose the project proposal through
DTEC for Japan’s consideration. Figure 1 shows the flow of
Japanese ODA to Thailand.

　　　For example, in case of the Bangkok Metropolitan
Administration (BMA), the Office of the Permanent Secretary of
the BMA is the focal point to coordinate with other departments in
the BMA. The department in BMA which directly involve with
Japanese ODA for environmental purpose are (a) the Technical
and Planning Division of Department of Public Cleansing is
responsible for solid waste management, and (b) the Drainage
System Development Division of Department of Drainage and
Sewerage is responsible for wastewater management. The topic of
demand from Japanese Government are as follows:
　　　1. The “Green” environmental agenda
　　　The issues in the green environmental agenda include the
declining forest cover, loss of critical habitats, land degradation;
soil erosion. The main agency which usually responds to the aid
from Japan is the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. The
Ministry will transfer the money to the agencies which related to
the topic of the aid, such as the Department of Land Development,
the Department of Fisheries, Royal Irrigation Department and
National Inland Institute. Since 1992, there are few green
environmental projects got Japanese ODA. For example, the land
and water conservation center project in the east of Thailand
(1993), the after-care program for research and training in the re-
afforestation project (1997), the reforestation and extension project
in the northeast Thailand (phase2)(1999), and the reforestation of
mangrove at Songkhla Lake. (2000)
　　　2. The “Brown” environmental agenda
　　　The issues in the brown environmental agenda include
declining air quality, declining water quality in rivers, increasing
solid and hazardous waste generation, growing water scarcity,
watershed degradation, declining marine and freshwater resources.
Many agencies are involved with this topic, such as the Ministry of
Interior, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment,
Bangkok Metropolitan Administration, Department of Town and
Country Planning, and National Housing Authority. Since 1992,
many brown environmental projects got Japanese ODA. For
example, the study on Master Planning for Sewerage Development
Project for Lower Chao Praya River Basin (1992), the industrial
wastewater treatment technology for electroplating project (1992),
the study on urban environmental improvement program in BMA
(1995), the community hospital wastewater treatment project
(1999), the master plan on industrial waste management in the
BMA and its vicinity ( 2000) etc.

Japanese ODA for Wastewater Management in BMA

Water pollution has become a severe problem in Bangkok
for many years. Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA)
attempted to tackle the problem by using several approaches. One
approach is to construct wastewater treatment plants to improve
water quality in the canals and in the Chao Praya River. (see more
detail in Table 2) The first Bangkok Sewerage System Master Plan
was drafted in 1968. Then the JICA’s supported Master Plan was
established in 1981.(2) The Master Plan introduced the
implementation of the Central Wastewater Treatment Projects.
Moreover, there was also the Agreement on Technical Cooperation
between the Government of Japan and the Government of Thailand.
This agreement was signed in Tokyo on November 5th, 1981. (3)
The details of the technical cooperation program concern the
Training Center for Sewage Works Project in Thailand in
particular in Bangkok area. Box. 1 shows historical background of
Japanese aid for wastewater management in Bangkok.
　

Table 2 Bangkok Wastewater Treatment Projects

Wastewater Treatment Project
Coverage Area (km2)
Service Area
Capacity (m3/d)
Location of Wastewater Treatment Plant


1. Si phraya
2.7
Pomprapsatruphai, Samphanthawong, and some part of Bangrak District
30,000
The mouth of Klong Phadung Krung Kasem, Si Phraya Road

2. Rattanakosin
4.1
Phra Nakhon District
40,000
Ban Panthom Market, Banglampoo

3. Central Wastewater Treatment Project stage 1
37
Pomprapsatruphai, Samphanthawong, Patumwan, Rajtawee and some part of Phranakhon, Dusit, Phyathai and Dindaeng District
350,000
BMA City Hall III

4. Yannawa
28.5
Yannawa, Bangrak, Sathon and Bangkholaem District
200,000
Klong Chong Nonsee, Rama III Road

5. Nongkhaem-Phasicharoen-Ratburana
5.1)44
5.2)42
5.1)Nongkhaem and Phasicharoen District
5.2)Ratburana District
5.1)157,000
5.2)65,000
5.1)Nongkhaem Dumping Site
5.2)Prachautit Road, Thung Kru

6. Central Waste Water Treatment (stage 4)
33.4
Dusit, Phyathai, Huay Khwang and Jatujak District
150,000
Soi Intamara 35

7. Kong Toey
71
Kong Toey
487,000
Kong Toey

Source: http://www.bma.go.th/bmaeng/body_project21.html ( June 20, 2003)



Box 1 Historical Background of Japanese ODA for wastewater management in Bangkok

1981 JICA supported Master plan of Sewage System
1990 BMA started to construct Central Wastewater Treatment Facilities
1994 Si Phraya Wastewater Treatment Plant was operated
1996 JICA supported the Training Center for Sewage Works Project
(Training courses for sewerage engineers, scientists, technicians and administrative staffs)
1997 JICA supplied the equipments for wastewater treatment plants
1998 OECF Special Assistance for Project Formation (SAPROF) for BMA wastewater management project in Thailand
1999 JICA supported the Study for Master Plan on Sewage Sludge Treatment/Disposal and Reclaimed Wastewater Reuse in Bangkok

　　　
　　　
　　　According to wastewater treatment plan established in 1981,
BMA has consequently implemented the Bangkok Wastewater
Treatment Projects. Currently, six projects of seven areas cover the
catchment areas of about 191.7 sq. km. have been implemented.
The total capacity about 992,000 cu.m./day. The six wastewater
collection and treatment plants covering seven areas are: the Si
Phraya plant; the Rattanakosin plant; the Central Water Treatment
Project-Stage 1 (Dindeang); the Chongnonsi plant; Yannawa
WWTP and Nong Kaem-Pasi Charoen-Rat Burana WWTP. In the
6th Bangkok Metropolitan Development Plan from 2001 to 2005
(draft), the plan clearly describes that the construction of four
wastewater treatment plants be continued. They are Klong Toei
(same as Prakanong-Klong Toei in the 5th Bangkok Metropolitan
Development Plan), Thonburi, Huai Khwang and Wong Tong
Lang Projects. Among these four projects, Klong Toei is the only
project that is feasibility study was completed. These are all part of
the Master Plan for wastewater treatment plants drawn up by JICA
and adapted as a Working Plan by the Department of Drainage and
Sewerage, BMA.
　　　In implementing the wastewater treatment projects, BMA
takes long time and has experienced problems. During 1992-1998,
among five wastewater treatment plants which were planned to be
constructed only one wastewater treatment plant (Si Phraya
Wastewater Treatment Plant) was complete. The catchment area is
about 2.7 km2 consists of Pom-Prap, Sumpantawong and Bang Rak
districts. The plant capacity is 30,000 m3/day. The location of the
plant is on mouth of Phadung Krung Kasem canal, Si Phraya Road.
The plant was completed on 23 December 1993. The construction
cost is about 450.4 million baht. The plant has been operated since
January 1994.(4)
　　　It is pointed out that all the four plants in progress have
experienced problems. The contractor for the Stage 1 Project, the
North consortium company asked to health work at the end of 1997
alleging that they had not received the 46 plots of land required nor
payment according to the terms of the contract. In March 1998 the
company broke the contract, left the work and commenced
proceedings with the arbitrator to recover the outstanding monies
owed.(5)
Meanwhile the contractor of the Rattanakosin Wastewater
Treatment Project also had cashflow problems leading to a cession
of work. Two other projects encounter problems with traffic and
other public services, together with site access.
In February 1998, Dr. Pichit Ratakul (BMA former
Governor) ordered that only the four WWT projects should
continue and the new approaches should be sought which would be
most cost effective. Previous projects should also be reviewed
because expert studies revealed that large scale wastewater
treatment plants were technically inappropriate, with high capital
costs, long construction periods and were complex to construct and
operate. Thus the Si Phraya WWT plant which had been in
operation since early 1994 was capable of treating 30,000 cubic
metres/day but was receiving only 6,000 cubic metres of water at
this time, which had BOD levels not requiring treatment. In view
of economy the project was completely non-cost effective.(6)
Dr. Apichart Wongkaew, advisor to the Bangkok Governor,
and Dr. Kasemsan Suwannarat, Deputy Director of the Office of
Policy and Planning of the BMA, made two suggestions on
community wastewater treatment projects: 1) carry out small-scale
community plants; 2) change canals and ponds under the Monkey
Cheeks project to the aerated lagoon or stabilization pond type.
The main problem with these two methods is that groups with
influence do not appreciate them. (7)
In term of technical assistance through the agreement
between Thai government and Japanese government, training was
provided for line-level practioners by utilizing JICA’s scheme of
technical training of overseas participants. Since 1992, two
technicians of the Si Praya Wastewater Treatment Plant of BMA
were trained in Japan under the Training Center for Sewage
Works Project (TCSW). This center was supported by JICA. (see
Table 3) Moreover, JICA also supplied equipments to the
Department of Drainage and Sewerage, BMA for using in the Si
Praya Wastewater Treatment Plan.



Table 3

Number of trainees divided by PWD / BMA /Local Government in each training course


PWD
BMA
Local
Total

Planning and Design 1
40
20
-
60

Planning and Design 2
50
30
-
80

Planning and Design 3
40
20
-
60

Construction Supervision
80
40
-
120

Operations and Maintenance (Basic)
30
150
150
330

Operations and Maintenance (Advanced)
30
100
50
180

Water Quality Analysis (Basic)
10
20
50
80

Water Quality Analysis (Advanced)
5
20
5
30

Management of Sewage Works
20
20
50
90

Water Quality Control
15
100
100
215

Total
320
520
405
1245



In 1997, recognizing that the economic situation in South
East Asia threatened to disrupt the progress of the wastewater
program, the BMA, in conjunction with the Royal Thai
Government, approached the Overseas Economic Cooperation
Fund (OECF) to request a study appraise the suitability of the two
projects for a Yen loan agreement. The Thonburi Wastewater
Project is requested for the Japanese 23rd (1998) yearly Yen credit
and the Klong Toey Wastewater Project is requested for the
Japanese 24th (1999) yearly yen credit. Based on this request the
OECF formed a SAPROF Team, signing a contract with Nippon
Koei on 4th December 1997. The objective of the study is to make
a supplementary study and report that will assist BMA to fulfill
the requirements for a proposed Yen-loan.(8) However, this project
was not successful and canceled after the consultant company
submitted draft final report.
　　　Since many large scale wastewater treatment plants were
established and many projects are planned, these will generate
large amount of sewage sludge which require for its disposal. To
tackle with this problem, in 1999, JICA provided the Study for the
Master Plan on Sewage Sludge Treatment Disposal and Reclaimed
Wastewater Reuse in Bangkok. The objectives of the study are: 1)
to formulate a master plan for the year 2020 for effective sewage
sludge treatment/disposal in the BMA are; 2) to determine for
viable reclaimed wastewater reuse plan in the BMA area; and 3) to
transfer technical knowledge to Thai counterpart personnel during
the course of the Study. (9) It is important to note here that this
scheme is reactive approach.


Japanese ODA for Solid Waste Management in BMA

The solid waste generation amount in BMA has been
rapidly increasing and is approximately 9,000 tons per day.(10)
Currently the BMA has three methods of refuse disposal:
1) Composting which takes place at On Nut and can turn
1,000 tons per day into 300 tons of compost and 700
tons which then require disposal by sanitary landfill.
2) Sanitary Landfill which is sub-contracted to a private
company to remove to their own land situated at
Kamphaeng Saen district, Nakhon Pathom province and
Lad Krabang, Bangkok.
3) Incineration in ovens is used for contaminated waste.
The two ovens can each handle 10 tons per day.
　　　Recognizing with the problem of the limited place to bury
waste of its own, the BMA has planned to establish a new solid
waste disposal facility at the On Nuch solid waste transfer station
in the eastern part of Bangkok. (see Table 4 and 5) Since 1995,
engineering consultant firms, including expert teams from JICA,
have been contracted in order to study the institution’s solid waste
management plan. Among other items, the BMA had expressed
interest in so-called “waste-to-energy” technology similar that used
in industrialized countries. Box. 2 shows historical background of
Japanese aid of solid waste management in Bangkok.
　　　

Box 2 Historical Background of Japanese ODA for solid waste management
in Bangkok

1991 JICA supported the Study for Master Plan on Solid Waste
1995 JICA supported the Study of Institution’s Solid Waste Management Plan at On-Nuch facility
2001 JBIC (SAPROF Team) supported the Study of Waste Management at On-Nuch facility (conducted by Kokusai Kogyo Co. Ltd)
2002 JICA supported the Study on Master Plan on Industrial Waste Management in the Bangkok Metropolitan Area and Its Vicinity in the Kingdom of Thailand. (conducted by Kokusai Kogyo Co. Ltd. and Ex Corporation)
　　　
　

Table 4 Location of proposed incinerators in Bangkok

Project
Amount of garbage disposal (tons per day)
Power generation (Megawatt)
Investment Cost (million baht)

On-nuch (1st project)
1,350
25
5,000

On-nuch (2nd project)
1,350
25
5,000

Nongkhaem
1,350
30-35
5,000

Tha-raengh
1,350
30-35
5,000

　

Table 5 Loan sources of proposed incinerators in Bangkok

Project (includes sorting and composting)
Source of the Loan
Amount (millions bath)

On-nuch (1st project)
JBIC
6,000

On-nuch (2nd project)
JBIC
6,000

Nongkhaem
Special Yen Credit Project, Japan
6,000

Tha-raengh
Special Yen Credit Project, Japan
6,000

Total
24,000

Source: The National Board of Economic and Social Development NESDB) “The Analysis Report of Foreign Aid for BMA Municipal Waste Incineration Project” March 1999.
Note: The budget includes the costs for sorting garbage, composting plants, incineration system and the cost of electrical energy generation. The loan repayment will be over a period of 40 years. The interest-free period is 10 years. The interest rate is 0.75 percent.
　　　
　　　
　　　　　　
　　　
　　　In early 2000, the cabinet approved a proposal for the
construction of waste-to-energy plant with a capacity of 2 x 1,350
tons per day. Chulalongkorn University’s Environmental Research
Institute did the proposal. The cabinet decision came after a
feasibility study was done by the National Economic and Social
Development Board and after an Initial Environmental Impact
Assessment. This prompted the BMA to negotiate for aid
assistance from JBIC funds.
　　　In considering the project requested by the BMA, JBIC
judged that project preparation were not satisfied conducted.
Hence, a contract creating a Special Assistance Facility (SAF) was
signed. A Special Assistance for Project Formation (SAPROF)
study on Solid Waste Management Project at On Nuch (phase 1)
was initiated. JBIC hired a Japanese consulting company called
“Kokusai Kogyo” to be involved in its study and hired NGO
working on urban poor issues in Bangkok to liaise with the local
community nearby On Nuch dump site in order to promote A
Social Impact Assessment (SIA) for the project.(11)
　　　Two main points of Japanese ODA approach supporting the
construction of incinerators in Bangkok should be mentioned. The
first point is technology in itself. Incineration means incinerators
plus landfill. Furthermore, there are two kinds of by-pass waste.
Materials that do not fit into the incinerator (see Table 6), and
waste that is generated when the incinerator is down for regularly
scheduled maintenance. Both of these materials need to be placed
in a landfill. Thus, this technology cannot solve the problem
because the BMA still have limited areas. The second point is
JBIC’s consideration procedures through SAPROF. The
contracting out company to conduct a study for JBIC in this case is
the Japanese company. This practice is therefore criticized that
Japan is being utilized to help a Japanese private enterprise in
exporting incineration.(12)




Table 6 Compositions of Solid Waste in BMA

Materials
Percentage
Quantity (Ton)

Food
　　　　　29
3,510

Plastic
　　　　　19
2,300

Paper
　　　　　11
1,330

Glass
　　　　　10
1,210

Cloth
　　　　　7
850

Garden garbage
　　　　　3
360

Leather & rubber
　　　　　3
360

Others
　　　　　18
2,180

　　　 Source: Department of Public Cleansing 1997
　　　 Estimation based on waste generation of 12,1000 tons/day

　　　
The Problems of Japanese ODA

The above two case studies point out that Japanese ODA
for environmental purpose has two main point of weaknesses. First,
it is the problem besetting technology transfer. The ODA for
wastewater and solid waste management in Bangkok mainly focus
on reactive approach. In fact Japan must shift its assistance to help
BMA into pollution prevention path. Moreover, technology
transfers and methods for implementing them are being widely
discussed from a global standpoint, from the perspectives of
developed and developing countries, and from a policy viewpoint.
The practical problems involved in the implementation of
technology transfer are mentioned.
　　　Although developing countries like Thailand recognize the
need to control pollution, many plans are delayed at the
implementation stage due to the size of the investment required to
get the equipment installed. A sizable portion of Japan’s huge
official development assistance budget is being invested in
environmental protection projects in developing countries. In view
of the large amounts of capital assistance these countries hope to
receive for pollution control, Japan should therefore consider
setting up a new system for providing such funding outside the
framework of the existing ODA budget.
　　　At present, however, the area of capital is being given too
much attention. In many cases, neither the extent of market
demand for pollution control equipment nor the level of
technology required is clear. Comprehensive study and analysis
are needed before taking action. Appropriate technology- that is,
technology suited to the environment of the country and region-
needs to be worked out. Nonetheless, developing countries can
easily get the wrong impression if they are given something less
than the latest technology, and so the recipients must clearly
understand why the technology they are receiving is the best for
them under the circumstances.
　　　Other problems involved in technology transfers to
developing countries include 1) education and training; 2)
understanding of patent and intellectual property rights; 3) varying
approaches to contracts deriving from cultural, linguistic, and
attitudinal differences; 4) strictness of the limitations set by the
technological support contract; 5) difficulties in producing
equipment involved in technology transfers and procuring
machinery; 6) coping with technology transfer negotiations and the
complexities of organizations issuing approval; 7) the need to
develop and experiment with new technology; and 8) clarification
of warranty clauses.(13)
　　　Pollution control is closely related to the production
process, and pollution control equipment must go hand in hand
with efforts to develop production processes that minimize
pollutant emissions or facilitate treatment of the pollutants emitted.
　　　A great many technological difficulties must be overcome
if the problems of developing countries are to be solved. Japan’s
experience with the pollution control since 1995 make it clear that
cooperation with developing countries is both necessary and
possible. This is one very important and worthwhile way to help
overcome the North-South dichotomy. Japan can make a
significant contribution to pollution control policies in developing
countries and the solution of global environmental problems by
exchanging information with recipient countries, negotiating
technology transfers thoroughly, and developing technology
appropriate to the recipient’s circumstances.
　　　The second point of weakness of Japanese ODA is that the
current Japan’s aid system do not have adequate project evaluation
on environmental and social dimensions. In general, the evaluation
of the project itself is important for the grants/loan. The
successfulness of the project is usually evaluated in terms of
economic return and the completeness of the project construction.
However, when we consider on the overall pictures of the
environment it means that not only the project has carried on
successfully installed plants and process garbage but also what will
happen if we treat it different ways. And what will happen to the
environment. Moreover, the evaluation of the project should
include social dimension, particularly the impact for local
communities.
　　　
Footnoted

1. World Bank, Thailand Environment Monitor 2000. World
Bank Office, Bangkok, 2000, p. 1.
2. United Nations Environment Programme. Bangkok State of
the Environment 2001. Bangkok, 2000, pp. 33.
3. The Drainage System Development Division, Department of
Drainage and Sewage, BMA.
4. www.bma.go.th/bmaeng/body_project21.html (July 20, 2003).
5. Sukran Rojanapaiwong, (ed.) State of the Thai Environment
1997-1998. The Green World Foundation, Bangkok, pp. 52.
6. Ibid., pp. 53.
7. Ibid., pp. 54.
8. OECF, OECF Special Assistant for Project Formations
(SAPROF) for BMA Wastewater Management Project in
the Kingdom of Thailand, pp. ES-ii.
9. JICA, The Study for the Master Plan on Sewage Sludge
Treatment/Disposal and Reclaimed Wastewater Reuse in
Bangkok. 1999, pp. S-1.
10. JBIC, JBIC Special Assistance for Project Formation for
Solid Waste Management at On-Nuch. 2001, p. 1.
11. Greenpeace, Japan’s Yen Aid: Sustainable Development or
Environmental Destruction, pp. 18.
12. Ibid., pp. 19.
13. Makoto Natori, “Japan Pollution Control Technologies and
Their Roles in the World.” Japan Review of International
Affairs. (Winter) 1993, pp. 65-67.

　

CHAPTER IV

CONCLUSION

After two decades of increasing environmental
consciousness, from the Stockholm Conference in 1972 to the Rio
De Janeiro Conference 1992 (Earth Summit), environmental issues
have become an international priority. Agreements reached at the
Earth Summit require the developed countries to provide financial
and technical support to enable the developing countries to balance
developmental and environmental concerns. This paper has tried to
demonstrate how Japan, as the biggest donor, have provided ODA
for environmental protection at the national level. It focuses
primarily on Japanese ODA for environmental projects in Thailand
after 1992. It highlights three characteristics of Japanese ODA.
The first, the “flexibility” leads to the debate that Japan does not
have a core idea on ODA. The second, the “self-help” philosophy
shows a narrow idea of assistance which concerns only about the
money. The third, the “request based” principle is criticized as not
only an irresponsible ODA policy because it neglects the recipient
country’s capability to manage ODA but also a risky of falling into
the supply side mentality of the recipient country. In considering
the effectiveness of Japan’s environmental aid to Thailand, this
paper found that Japanese ODA has emphasized much on problem
solution and technology transfer while neglected the natural
conservation and knowledge of technology management.
This paper concludes that Japanese ODA plays a major role
in financing the environmental projects in Thailand, particularly in
urban areas. As stressed in the discussion on the Thai projects got
ODA from Japan, 15 projects of 34 projects were implemented in
Bangkok. This report makes no attempt to be comprehensive in its
discussion of environmental problems. Rather, it seeks to identify
the most serious environmental problems and argue whether the
Japanese ODA can help Thailand combating such problems.
Wastewater and solid waste problems in Bangkok are, therefore,
employed as case studies to demonstrate the implication of
Japanese ODA to Thailand. Some key issues regarding the
improvement of environmental protection through Japanese ODA
for Thailand as a recipient country and for Japan as a donor
country are recommended here.

Challenges Ahead for Thailand

The evidence from case studies in Bangkok (community
wastewater and solid waste management) indicates that the current
Japanese ODA system is not enough to ensure environmental
quality. The present approach has long been criticized for its
commercialized base and its inability to either mobilize community
resources and knowledge to build better systems or to effectively
maintain systems after the departure of the aid agencies. In fact,
Thailand as a recipient country need to have access to less-
polluting technologies and to learn from the successes and failures
of Japan environmental strategies. In receiving assistance from
Japanese government through ODA, the conditions or the terms of
negotiation should be how to transfer technology from Japan to
Thailand, build more capacity in Thailand not only in terms of
buildings or equipments but also how to manage technology.

Challenges Ahead for Japan

Experience in Thailand suggests that Japan should consider
their roles from a long-term viewpoint. Japanese ODA will be
most effective when they aim at underlying causes rather
than symptoms. It is obvious that the benefits of large-scale
infrastructure projects generally reach the poor last and
often have a large negative impact on the environment
throughout a long gestation period. They are expensive
and crow out other investment. Hence, without technologies
and practices that can be applied at reasonable costs
environmental improvement is difficult. The point is the
importance of developing technical solutions that are adapted to
the climate, economic, and managerial realities of recipient
countries.
Based on the above understanding, recommendations are
made along with the following basic perspectives on Japanese
ODA.
* Clarify objectives of ODA for environmental projects and
ensure accountability. Japan need to be held accountable
for the environmental impact of her ODA activities. In
order to formulate its own approach to the new aid
environment, Japan urgently need to establish a system that
allows her to monitor and evaluate her granted projects.
This initiative is strongly required on government, private
and academic bases.
* Japanese ODA is not equipped to make judgments about
how local people value their environment. Therefore, social
impact assessment processes are essential, particularly the
affected communities which must be incorporated into
project design. Moreover, making the process transparent
has been found to be an important way of improving the
project’s quality and impact. Currently, many countries and
aid agencies have recently introduced social impact
assessment procedures. These are still early days for such
arrangements, technical skills need to be developed, and
lessons are being learned about the difficulties of
incorporating assessment results, which are often non-
quantitative, into decision-making.
* Listening to local views has also proved essential for
providing aids. Some lesson from the World Bank
experience are that information must be shared with local
people early in the life of project and that comments from
affected communities must be incorporated into project
des

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Name : SOPARATANA JARUSOMBAT, Ph.D.
Current Position : Assistant Professor, Faculty of Political
Science, Thammasat University, Bangkok, Thailand
Educational Background :
- B.A. Political Science (Public Administration) (1st class Honors), Thammasat University
- M.Sc. Technology of Environmental Management,
Mahidol University
- Ph.D. Urban Environmental Engineering and Management,
Asian Institute of Technology
Areas of Interest :
 Environmental policy and management
- Hazardous waste management
- Public participation on environmental management


Name : SIRIPORN WAJJWALKU, Ph.D.
Current Position :  Assistant Professor, Faculty of Political
Science, Thammasat University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Chair of Japanese Studies Program,
Institute of East Asian Studies, Thammasat University
Educational Background :
- B.A. Political Science, Thammasat University
- M.A. International Relations, Nagoya University
- Ph.D. International Relations, Nagoya University
Areas of Interest :
- Japan’s politics and foreign policy
- Foreign policies of major powers (US. PRC, Japan) to Southeast Asia
- Japan-ASEAN Relations